Checking back? I put this issue to one side for this paper to focus on actual communicative acts. Given the relationship between Pr(H) and P (see P1), some, perhaps many, people’s attitudes towards P will therefore differ when certain problematic dissent is targeted, compared to a counterfactual world in which this problematic dissent is not targeted and perhaps even unwittingly helped to flourish. However, the Probability Argument does not hold that every person’s doubt or negative attitudes towards science or policy can be fully explained by not knowing enough, or in some cases at all. I am especially grateful to Wendy Parker, Peter Vickers, and Alison Wylie for their detailed feedback on (many) earlier drafts. However, I will use dMMI’s language of targeting within this article for consistency. High 77F. But I will return to the issue of terminology in §6. Even more promising for their position, studies have also found that this outcome often holds across the political spectrum, and that information about the degree of consensus can sometimes neutralize the effect of a person’s pre-existing worldview on the formation of their beliefs about empirical matters (Lewandowsky et al. Problematic dissent can causally contribute to non-experts holding false or inaccurate perceptions of experts’ first-order claims, as well as of higher-order evidence. In stark contrast to the way that problematic dissent confuses, conceals, and constrains, this clarity opens up the range of feasible policy directions at a point in time. For instance, in a recent article in this journal—“Who’s Afraid of Dissent?”—Inmaculada de Melo-Martín and Kristen Intemann (dMMI) agree that challenges to a scientific consensus by dissenting voices can have considerable negative consequences, including negative consequences to public policy (de Melo-Martín and Intemann 2014, pp. Their scholarship and journalism can therefore be understood as a type of testimony too: about the credibility of different experts and their claims. Or as the “Borg” of Star Trek were want to say, “ You will be absorbed. How León and Frida form their beliefs about HC is important. See van Niekerk (2003). Before moving on, I raise and respond to two objections to the Probability Argument: that it does not guarantee that any changes to policy as a result of targeting problematic dissent will make for sound policy, and that the Probability Argument is simply the deficit model in disguise. meta-expertise and interactive expertise19—and frequently have unique access to putative experts and evidence. In the second part of the paper (§4–§5), I examine dMMI’s argument that targeting dissent is dangerous. A primary target became the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) or “Wobblies,” which grew so quickly that it became a household name throughout much of America in the early 20th century. But without this evidence, such findings should at least give us moment for pause. If, in such circumstances, South Africa’s most eminent medical journal had continued to publish dissenting articles denying the well-established link between HIV and AIDS, it would have been conferring credibility on Mbeki’s (and others’) empirical assertions, and tacitly recommending the need for non-experts to give serious consideration to such views. I take my argument in the first part of this paper to be sufficient to re-open the debate about the soundness of targeting dissent. NIH Publication No. Finally, much of the scholarship dMMI characterize as a targeting strategy to discredit dissenters has in fact publicly revealed and discussed critical higher-order evidence, some of which had previously been actively suppressed and concealed from the public. Importantly, these scholars and journalists themselves often have various types of expertise—e.g. But this kind of Millian orthodoxy neglects the possibility that sometimes the things we take to be true really are true, and that various non-epistemic benefits can be worth the risk or even cost of some epistemic loss (Schauer 2012). By Jago Russell | … It is still below target and, importantly, even if it met or exceeded our target, 2.6 percent should not be of any more concern than the current reading of 1.4 percent, because our target … P2. On your next view you will be asked to log in to your subscriber account or create an account and subscribepurchase a subscription to continue reading. In such cases, dissenting speech, or the way it is presented, modifies non-experts’ perceptions of Pr(H) more indirectly by influencing their perceptions of higher-order evidence. Teachers/Readers.- If you would like us to ready any books please reach out to us! Thank you to my reviewers for Perspectives on Science and for the particularly helpful criticisms and comments received from one of my anonymous reviewers. In their book, Merchants of Doubt, Oreskes and Conway (2010) expose the “Tobacco Strategy”: the methods various actors have deployed, increasingly since the mid-twentieth century, to obscure the truth about scientific issues from the public, induce widespread ignorance and unwarranted doubt, and stall public responses to issues that can have significant consequences for people’s lives. The first is that even if the Probability Argument shows that targeting dissent can sometimes influence the trajectory of policy, this trajectory will not necessarily bend towards sound policy (remember: “sound” policy is what dMMI take to be the aim of those who target problematic dissent). Corrections can also result in misinformation becoming more salient, which is problematic because, as noted earlier, we tend to believe that propositions familiar to us are likely to be true. Target: The White Man June 25, 2020 Hunter Wallace Anti-Racism , Anti-White , Liberalism , Progressives , Race Relations , Racism , Whiteness , Woke Supremacy 38 When you defund the police… The Roper Report (1978, cited by CDC 2006) reported the widespread public belief that “What the smoker does to himself may be his business, but what the smoker does to the non-smoker is quite a different matter.” It also predicted that, as the belief that second-hand smoke exposure could harm non-smokers became more widespread, public support for smoking restrictions would grow. Had the union won, the store would have been the first of more than 1,700 Targets across the country to be organized. Upon consideration of higher-order evidence, if a non-expert perceives some putative experts or the processes they used to lack credibility or trustworthiness, they may discount their testimony and take Pr(H) to be higher or lower than stated. What I will do, however, is provide a sketch of the sorts of considerations I think should factor into these evaluations and decisions, and how future scholarship by philosophers and science studies scholars could contribute. For example, several studies have demonstrated the causal role of the perceived degree of expert consensus in the belief formation of non-experts (Lewandowsky et al. With these updated beliefs (their values remain unchanged), León now weakly, and Frida very strongly, supports PPSW. Egypt targets artists in ongoing crackdown on dissent. Throughout this article I used de Melo-Martín and Intemann’s language of targeting dissent to aid the tracing of arguments between articles. It will have to meet very strict standards of proportionality; given that the target is a single person, it will be difficult to justify any injury to innocent bystanders. 137–8). For example, early in 2013, the Australian, Australia’s widest circulating national newspaper, ran a front-page story with a headline that asserted, “Sea rise ‘not linked to warming’.”16 This article was supposedly based on the findings of a team of climate scientists, Gregory et al. Following Collins and Evans (2007), I take meta-expertize to be expertize used to judge other expertize and experts, and interactive expertize to be having necessary and sufficient knowledge and skill within a domain such that one can engage with contributory experts fluently, and in sophisticated ways. They may do so because “X” is made to seem plausible, and the putative higher-order evidence presented makes the testifier appear credible and trustworthy and that there are no additional reasons to reduce one’s credence or hold a different belief. Showers and thunderstorms. Description Debbie Levy is the award-winning author of many books of nonfiction and fiction, including the New York Times bestseller I Dissent, This Promise of Change, The Year of Goodbyes, and the young adult novel Imperfect Spiral. Turkey’s War on Dissent Goes Global Recep Tayyip Erdogan’s government is abusing international law enforcement institutions to target its critics. She chooses to do so because she has good reasons to suspect that many of her students have underlying prejudices towards non-heterosexual people, and as such is concerned that raising this dissent early within the course might trigger unconscious biases, making it harder to achieve learning objectives. Even if an alternative channel or forum is created, its educative function could be undermined by the parallel existence of an unreformed network of influential entities that continue to transmit enormous amounts of misinformation and frequently misrepresent others, including educators. I initially dissented in March because I didn’t see much evidence that inflation was climbing toward the Fed’s 2 percent target and there still seemed to be slack in the labor market. Although I do think that this will be the case in some circumstances, in this section I aim to cast further doubt on this position as a more general conclusion by critically examining the soundness of, and the risks associated with, dMMI’s proposed alternative: educating policymakers and the public to correct false philosophies of science-informed policy. FBI Target "The government is gathering information illegally under the guise of protecting us from the threat of terrorism. I am simply calling attention to there being cases where targeting dissent is not misguided and dangerous, and where doing so will be a sound, reasonable, and legitimate response. The MIT Press colophon is registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. According to dMMI, an example of silencing occurs when dissent is “…hindered through the peer-review process” (de Melo-Martín and Intemann 2014, p. 597). As an illustration of the former, dMMI cite the example of scientists presenting only those general claims they all agree on to the public and policymakers, whilst simultaneously not conveying information about other claims they disagree about or downplaying their significance. de Melo-Martín and Intemann also argue that targeting dissent is dangerous because doing so is likely to result in a “chilling effect,” silencing dissenting voices that genuinely ought to weaken a prevailing expert consensus (de Melo-Martín and Intemann 2014, p. 608). Please purchase a subscription to continue reading. I would prefer to use “checking” dissent instead, as I think “targeting” is an unduly loaded term. These chilling effects, say dMMI, occur when scientists feel the need to self-censor to protect their careers and reputations, or when particular research and conclusions are suppressed in peer review, editorial processes, and funding decisions. The Chinese government should stop building big data policing platforms that aggregate and analyze massive amounts of citizens’ personal information, Human Rights Watch said today. I. 22–34; Lane 2014). December 16, 2019 Left, Attorney General William Barr. The presence of voices targeting problematic dissent may currently be operating as counter-vailing forces and disincentives, keeping the frequency and influence of problematic dissent (as well as its consequences) at reduced levels compared to a counterfactual world in which no targeting of dissent took place. His first target should be Ginni Thomas…and maybe her husband, too. How Surveillance Stifles Dissent on the Internet. Dr John Church, one of the study’s authors, said of article: “Sea level clearly is linked to climate change, it clearly is linked to greenhouse gases and that was in the paper quoted by the Australian. Here I raise and respond to two objections. The article no longer appears online, but a copy of the print version can be viewed at: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.5481100.v1. Search for other works by this author on: © 2018 by The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, by The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Democracy, Public Policy, and Lay Assessments of Scientific Testimony. Because these activities are normative, it seems that moral, social and political philosophy will need to play a much greater role in these debates than they have to date. Scholars have been optimistic that the capacities needed to reason well about competing putative experts’ claims are within reach for most people (e.g., see Anderson 2011), especially as they involve skills we already deploy when we assess everyday experts, like mechanics and doctors. Today, few people have heard of the IWW. Nov. 19, 2015; Protesters marching to the Presidential House after a rally against government policy in Seoul, South Korea. Similarly, even if the challenges identified thus far could, over the long term, eventually be overcome without recourse to targeting dissent along the way, it would surely take an extremely long time to get to the point where there were no longer any significant negative consequences associated with problematic dissent (if it is even possible to reach this point). Low near 65F. By The Editorial Board. 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017; van der Linden 2016), among others, hold that targeting problematic dissent in certain ways is sometimes a sound, reasonable, and legitimate response to the risks associated with problematic dissent, especially in contexts where powerful political actors have either deliberately manufactured unwarranted levels of doubt about scientists’ empirical claims, or displayed a reckless disregard for the truth about empirical matters. If the existence of scientific consensus is thought to indicate that a theory is likely to be true, then the necessity of consensus for adopting a policy would seem to follow” (de Melo-Martín and Intemann 2014, p. 600). Xi’s Boldest Critic Is the Latest Target of China’s Crackdown on Dissent. A further challenge for dMMI’s proposal is that it is also possible for problematic dissent to be deployed to undermine non-experts’ understanding of science-informed policy. dMMI’s argument here therefore seems more appropriate as a response to a position that all dissent in and about science is problematic and should be targeted, rather than my nuanced and particularistic position that some dissent is problematic, and that it can be sound, reasonable, and legitimate to target some problematic dissent in some circumstances. As expected, the government will claim they are 'protecting Canadians,' while actually seeking to protect government from the criticism that is necessary in a free society. In November 2014, Abu El Naga was the target of a vicious defamation campaign in the media that accused him of being gay after he called on Sisi to step down "for his failure to rid Egypt of terrorism"; talk show host Tewfiq Okasha slyly questioned why Abu El Naga sleeps on his stomach rather than on his back and advised the actor to seek medical treatment for his … 3. Similarly, Intemann (2017, p. 201) urges scientists to communicate features of their theories or models that make them reliable or trustworthy, such as the ability to make novel predictions. Oreskes and Conway’s research on the “manufacturers of doubt” is raised again as an example of this practice. (2017) are also concerned about democratic deficits in policymaking caused by quarrels over empirical facts. Target Has the Best Gifts to Get Your BFF This Holiday ... Players will be able to vote on today's hottest issues and have informed discussions when they play this RBG I Dissent Board Game … Their target is your dissent to them. Enter their alliance with Antifa and BLM, socialist students and others. I hope to push the discussion toward the development of a more contextual and nuanced approach to evaluating and responding to dissent. You have permission to edit this article. Given the relationship between a person’s perception of first- and higher-order facts and their evaluation of how well justified policies are, León’s initial attitude toward PPSW most likely would have been different; in this case, more supportive. But they fail to acknowledge that part of the reason why this was accepted as a “hot crisis signal” was because there was a strong expert consensus that the hole existed and was unlikely to quickly disappear. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the case of the regulation of speech about tobacco products, which has involved the state curtailing the tobacco industry’s freedom to publicly dissent over certain empirical claims that have been accepted as being beyond reasonable doubt. However, if one took a much wider view of what counts as sound climate policy—e.g., for action, broadly construed rather than inaction—emerging evidence suggests that more accurate beliefs about higher-order evidence, such as the degree of scientific agreement about the existence of anthropogenic climate change, is an important gateway belief associated with increased support for policy action across the political spectrum (van der Linden et al. For example, if a person misperceives the degree of expert agreement about some Pr(H) to be “X,” when it is in fact “Z,” it is possible they might fail to support P when a degree of agreement “Y” about Pr(H) would have been sufficient for their support. Or as the “Borg” of Star Trek were want to say, “ You will be absorbed. I show that the same reasons dMMI provide to ground their argument that targeting dissent is dangerous also apply to not targeting dissent; as such, it remains very unclear whether targeting dissent, or not targeting dissent, will be riskier. Read full article. Perhaps this even explains why, as dMMI questioningly point out (de Melo-Martín and Intemann 2014, p. 602), dissent that has differing characteristics is often targeted for what seem to be “unsystematic” reasons. P3. I sketch what is required for a more nuanced and contextual approach to evaluating and responding to dissent. The Probability Argument therefore provides a prima facie case, and a pro-tanto reason, for targeting problematic dissent about science. WW1 and Dissent is a series of Wikipedia editathons during November 2014 that aims to improve Wikipedia pages about World War I and dissent; topics might include peace attempts, conscience objectors, neutrality during the war, literature and artwork critical of the war, protests and much more. (de Melo-Martín and Intemann 2014, p. 609, emphasis added). One aspect of the Tobacco Strategy involves the propagation of falsehoods by actors dissenting from an expert consensus (Oreskes and Conway 2010).1 The most infamous example, and the strategy’s namesake, is the well-documented dissent of the tobacco industry, which for over half a century publicly denied the link between smoking and cancer (Michaels 2008). Two more recent papers echo similar arguments. What they have identified, however, is one potential part of the problem (false philosophies of science-informed policy), and one aspect of a possible solution (education). For some policy issues, scientific information will be pertinent. There are no value-free or value-neutral moves; those who advocate not targeting dissent, or the position that we should address bad speech with more speech or education, are often merely assigning hefty weight and giving priority to epistemic values, such as a greater probability of obtaining new knowledge, over non-epistemic risks and harms. Such a move plausibly contributed, either directly or indirectly, to more South Africans coming to doubt the credibility of Mbeki’s assertions, and how well justified his policies were, than they otherwise would have if the SAMJ continued to offer up their journal as a forum in which AIDS dissidents could express their views. Or as the “Borg” of Star Trek were want to say, “ You will be absorbed. Unfortunately, we currently lack a good grasp of a fuller range of these consequences, as philosophers and science studies scholars have, to date, overly focused on and often valorized the epistemic benefits of dissent about science at the expense of giving proper attention to understanding its negative non-epistemic consequences. It is plausible that it would have been significantly more difficult for Bush and other politicians to elicit and maintain support for the decision to go to war if the public had not held such misperceptions. Target Corp.'s final shareholder vote tally showed a rise in dissent against key board members, highlighting how a massive data breach is eroding faith among its investors. This affects a non-expert’s ability to form well-calibrated beliefs about Pr(H). Through the work of the scholars dMMI reference, such as Proctor, Michaels, Oreskes and Conway, Shrader-Frechette, and Elliott (among others), we now have a deeper understanding of the interests and biases, strategies, and misconduct of players in so-called scientific controversies.18 Likewise, high-quality investigative science journalism in some cases has brought relevant higher-order evidence to light to be scrutinized by the public. Owing to this dissent, León may have failed to support a policy that he would have at least weakly supported, absent this distortion in his understanding of the epistemic landscape.17 But most importantly, notice that León and Frida did not hold false philosophies of science-informed policymaking: they did not take a scientific consensus per se to be necessary or sufficient to justify policy (as evidenced by Frida’s initial support of PPSW despite her perception that experts were divided). Presumably, what is important is not the existence of a consensus per se, but rather the fact that consensus was formed in epistemically appropriate ways” (2014, p. 600). I suggested that this was the case when the SAMJ refused to publish articles denying the link between HIV and AIDS. Where different chilling effects stand in a trade-off relationship, judgments will need to be made about which chilling effect is more problematic, and whose speech ought to be prioritized. 22, 2011 who Target dissent. or as the “ Borg ” of Nazi Germany ( @ DanMurphy2018 February... T novel as resting on one of nine women in a domain is secure no! Many ) earlier drafts incorrect and misleading information, support was gained a! Public opinion - vote on today 's Hot Button Issues Rethinking Violence: States and Non-State actors in Conflict t! Target problematic dissent about Science at some later time León and Frida form their about... 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